Table 3 Isomerization of glucose to fructose with representative homogenous catalysts at different reactions conditions

Triethylamine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 20 min, 10 wt%

51

32

63

Liu et al. (2014)

Quinuclidine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 2 h, 10 wt%

54

29

54

Deshpande et al. (2019)

Triethylamine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 2 h, 10 wt%

48

27

56

Deshpande et al. (2019)

Diisopropylethylamine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 2 h, 10 wt%

33

23

70

Deshpande et al. (2019)

Tri-n-propylamine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 2 h, 10 wt%

12

9

75

Deshpande et al. (2019)

Imidazole (160 mol%)

H₂O, 120 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

60

33

55

Yang et al. (2015)

1-(3-Aminopropyl) imidazole (7.5 mol%)

H₂O, 120 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

47

20

43

Yang et al. (2015)

Tetramethylguanidine (3 mol%)

H₂O, 120 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

59

30

51

Yang et al. (2015)

1,5,7-Triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (3 mol%)

H₂O, 120 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

64

32

50

Yang et al. (2015)

Trimethylamine (3 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

43

28

65

Yang et al. (2015)

Tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (3 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

43

24

56

Yang et al. (2015)

Polyethylenimine (0.5 mol%)

H₂O, 100 °C, 0.5 h, 10 wt%

38

21

55

Yang et al.(2015)

Arginine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 120 °C, 20 min, 10 wt%

41

31

76

Yang et al. (2016)

Polyethylenimine (0.05 mol%)

H₂O, 110–120 °C, 15 min, 10 wt%

47–50

33–36

66–77

Yang and Runge (2016)

Hexylamine (10 mol%)

H₂O, 110 °C, 10 min, 10 wt%

39

24

62

This work

APTES

H₂O, 110 °C, 60 min, 10 wt%

34

20

58

This work

APTMS

H₂O, 110 °C, 60 min, 10 wt%

50

31

61

This work

DMASi

H₂O, 110 °C, 60 min, 10 wt%

45

34

75

This work