Fig. 8
From: Biotechnological advances for improving natural pigment production: a state-of-the-art review
Schematic of carotenoids biosynthesis. Most carotenoids go through four synthetic steps consisting generation of building unit, chain elongation, cyclization, and modification. DXS, 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase; DXR, 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase; ISPD, 4-diphosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-D-erythritol synthase; IspE, 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase; IspF, 2C-methyl-D-erythritol-2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase; IspG, 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl-4-diphosphate synthase; IspH, 1-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl-4-diphosphate reductase; HMGS, HMG-CoA synthase; HMGR, HMG-CoA reductase; MK, mevalonate kinase; PMK, phosphomevalonate kinase; MVD1, mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase; IPPI/IDI1, isopentenyl-diphosphate isomerase; GGPPS, GGPP synthase; PSY, phytoene synthase; PDS, phytoene desaturase; ZDS, ζ‐carotene desaturase; CRTISO, carotenoid isomerase; CrtB, phytoene synthase; CrtI, phytoene desaturase; DXP, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate; MEP, 2-C-methyl-D-erythrito-l4-phosphate; CDP2ME, 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methylerythritol; MEP-cPP, 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-2,4-cyclo-diphosphate; HMBPP, (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl-diphosphate; IPP, isopentenyl diphosphate; DMAPP, dimethylallyl diphosphate; GGPP, geranylgeranyl diphosphate